AbstractAfrican Initiated Churches (AICs) in Diaspora have attracted a variety of scholarly interests. The Redeemed Christian Church of God (RCCG), founded in Lagos, Nigeria, in 1952, has founded branches in major cities worldwide. This study evaluated pastoral care practices in RCCG congregations in the London Borough of Southwark and Yoruba majority congregations in the Church of England (CofE) Dioceses of Southwark and London that are led by Yoruba and non-African CofE clergy to identify good practices that CofE and other churches can embrace to improve pastoral care of African congregants, particularly new migrants. The study concluded that the pastoral care approach adopted by the RCCG congregations in the UK is largely influenced by Yoruba culture; it is communal and proactive. It is also contextual, holistic in addressing the existential needs of their congregants. All CofE participants expressed serious concern about lack of training in intercultural pastoral care to facilitate effective care of African congregants. The study concluded that the communal-proactive-holistic contextual pastoral care approach of the RCCG congregations challenges traditional Eurocentric perspectives of pastoral care. AICs in Diaspora are God’s gifts to the World Church to enhance the understanding of intercultural pastoral care through the care of migrants

AbstractChristianity in Africa and the African Diaspora offers new resources for the interpretation and analysis of African Christian movements. It draws attention to a number of key issues, including the translatability of the Christian faith, the process of contextualization in various cultures, the place and role of indigenous agencies, the global impact of contemporary African Christian expressions, its influence on ecumenical relations and inter-religious encounters, and its way of shaping new religious identities and landscapes in response to power relations and artificial boundaries. Topics covered include the concept of diaspora, deconstructing colonial mission, conversion, African cosmologies, African retentions, female leadership dynamics, liberation theology, a new discourse around HIV/AIDS, transnational religious networks, pentecostal/charismatic movements, charismatic renewal within former mission churches, dynamics of reverse mission, outreach via cyberspace, specific studies on Anglican, Baptist, Adventist and Kimbanguist missions, and the need for intercultural and interdenominational bridge building

AbstractAfrican religions are increasingly engaging the diaspora as new abodes and promising 'mission fields' particularly in the last decades. At least two genres of Christian movements can be clearly mapped: those existing as branches of mother churches headquartered in Africa; and those founded by new African immigrants with headquarters in diaspora, from where they are expanding within and back to Africa and elsewhere. The paper deals with an example of the second category, the Embassy of the Blessed Kingdom of God for All Nations founded in Ukraine by Nigerian-born Sunday Adelaja. While virtually all new African churches in diaspora seem to be dominated by African immigrants, the 'Embassy of God' is an exception with a non-African membership majority. We map its demography and social-ethnic composition, and examine to what extent their belief and ritual system appeal to a population that was until recently home to essentially communist ideas and worldview. We explore how the church is gradually inserting itself in new geo-cultural contexts as well as reconfiguring public roles. It shows how the leader's complex peregrinations demonstrate one instance of religious transnationalization of African churches in diaspora

AbstractThe last three decades have witnessed a rapid proliferation of African Christian communities, particularly in Europe and North American diaspora, thus resulting in the remapping of old religious landscapes. This migratory trend and development bring to the fore the crucial role, functions and import of religious symbolic systems in new geo-cultural contexts. The trans-national linkages between African-led churches in the countries of origin (Africa) and the "host" societies are assuming increasing importance for African immigrants. The links and networks that are established and maintained between these contexts are of immense religious, cultural, economic, political and social importance. This suggests how African Christianities can be understood within processes of religious transnationalism and African modernity. Based on extensive religious ethnography undertaken by the author among African Christian communities in Europe, the USA and Africa in the last 17 years, this book maps and describes the incipience and consolidation of new brands of African Christianities in diaspora. The book demonstrates how African Christianities are negotiating and assimilating notions of the global while maintaining their local identities.

AbstractThe rise of immigrant churches and African-led churches in the Diaspora is one of the most important developments to occur in world mission at the end of the 20th century. Most of these churches are made up of Africans who felt left out in the historic churches of the West. A number of these are of Pentecostal/charismatic persuasion and have developed into some of the most dynamic religious communities in the countries where they exist. Additionally, a new type of African-led church has emerged in the diaspora in Europe. This article is a case study of two well-known African diaspora mega-churches in Europe, the Church of the Embassy of the Blessed Kingdom of God for all Nations based in Kyiv, Ukraine led by Sunday Adelaja, and the London-based Kingsway International Christian Center led by Matthew Ashimolowo. Using the conversion narratives of the born-again experience and the subsequent redemptive uplifts that people testify to have experienced through these churches, the article discusses the importance of these developments within the context of mission and migration in the diaspora

AbstractThis article examines the transnational significance and impact of the Church of the Embassy of the Blessed Kingdom of God for all nations (Embassy of God), a Nigerian-led Pentecostal church based in Kyiv, Ukraine. It shows that the church’s uniqueness lies both in its huge fol- lowing and in the fact that the majority of its members are white Eastern European. In this sense, it represents a “negative instance” of current trends within African-led migrant churches, where membership is pre- dominantly African. The church’s popularity is explained in terms of its Pentecostal spirituality, which satisfies the spiritual hunger fostered by socialism in Eastern Europe and challenges the staid religiosity of older denominations such as the Eastern Orthodox Church. Its deliber- ate pursuit of a transnational agenda is evident in the extensive foreign engagements of its leader, Sunday Adelaja, its international media ministry, the growing network of pastors attached to its ministry and its global missionary vision.

AbstractThe spread of African Christianity to Europe (including Britain) and North America over the last six decades has heralded a distinctive phase in global church history. Religion, which had been hitherto ignored as one of the motivations for migration, is gradually becoming a major mover in the global proliferation of African Christianity to the point that it is now a transatlantic phenomenon. Britain’s Black Majority Churches (BMCs) make use of self-representation and symbolic mapping in their discourses. The image of Britain as a post-Christian nation is projected with such epithets as “dead continent,” “prodigal nation,” and “secularized Britain.” It is apt to note that Britain’s BMCs are but one case of reverse mission that, in reality, more resembles migrant sanctuaries all across the Western world. The lack of understanding of the British culture, flawed church-planting strategies, and the operational methods employed by these churches have severely hampered the BMCs’ missionary endeavors in Britain.

Abstract"In this book, Robert Beckford explores the future of Black British Pentecostalism in a society where the notion of White supremacy - even in faith - is all too evident." "Drawing on Black, womanist and post-colonial theologies of liberation, he urges the Black Church to regain its traditional prophetic role as part of its ministry. He suggests that the Caribbean's first liberation theology, Rastafari, has much to offer all Christians concerned with speaking prophetically into social and political life in Britain." "Reflecting on aspects of Rastafari, Black Pentecostalism and the meaning of Jesus in the world today, he develops a new model for a Black political faith - a Dread Pentecostal theology."

AbstractThis article discusses the spread and impact of the Redeemed Christian Church of God (RCCG), a successful example of a Nigerian-initiated Pentecostal church in Britain, the Netherlands and Germany. The church’s capacity as a social force in Europe is assessed with reference to three dimensions: the social impact on the wider society through its missionary and civic activities, the social impact on members’ lives, and the extent to which the church contributes to the “deprivatization” of religion and its visibility in the public sphere (Casanova, 1994; Haynes, 1998). The article concludes that Nigerian-initiated Pentecostal churches such as the RCCG are quite clearly a social force in Europe: they are expanding, finding new ways of being present in public spaces and engaging with society, and are instrumental in constituting the spaces of the African Diaspora and shaping the self-conception of their members as valuable members of their host society. Furthermore, they contribute to the awareness of the European mainline churches that Christianity’s centre of gravity is moving south. All this is visible quite strongly in Britain, to a lesser extent in the Netherlands and least in Germany

AbstractAfrican-initiated Pentecostal churches represent an increasingly important addition to the British religious landscape, especially in London. This chapter focuses on one particular Nigerian-led denomination, the Redeemed Christian Church of God (RCCG), founded in 1952 by Josiah Akindayomi. It begins with a historical overview of African-led churches in Britain before discussing the factors behind the RCCG's popularity and growth. The chapter follows the studies that adopt a more holistic approach by taking account of sociological, theological and missiological factors behind their emergence and growth. The spread of African-led churches to Britain must be understood within the context of social and religious developments in home and host countries. In the literature, African churches in diaspora are often referred to as 'migrant' or 'immigrant' churches due to their capacity to cater for the needs of African immigrants. From the 1960s poor governance and economic decline at home, combined with a relatively liberal immigration policy, resulted in a large African Christian migrant community

AbstractAfrican Pentecostal churches are becoming increasingly important in Britain where they are growing at a time when mainstream Christianity is in decline. Originally functioning as social and religious support networks for African migrants, their growth has been stimulated by a conscious missionary agenda. Recently, there has been a shift towards a more holistic understanding of mission in some African churches, which includes social ministry and political action. The focus of this article is the Redeemed Christian Church of God (RCCG), a transnational Nigerian Pentecostal denomination with close to 400 congregations in Britain. It suggests that the RCCG’s social orientation has been influenced by its internal theology, its Pentecostal experience and its external social context. It explores the way it has articulated and implemented its social vision in a multicultural and fragmented society

AbstractThis article discusses the concept 'reverse mission' in relation to Nigerian-initiated Pentecostal churches in Britain. It begins with a general discussion of the term 'reverse mission' before examining the discourse of reverse mission as it is employed by Nigerian Pentecostals in Britain. Finally, the article explores the actual achievements of Nigerian Pentecostals against the background of European secularism. It considers whether their presence is an indication of the re-emergence of religion as a social force in Britain. Studies of reverse mission sometimes measure success in terms of winning indigenous converts or adherents and consequently find migrant churches wanting. The article concludes that Nigerian Pentecostal churches are to some extent a social force in Britain and it suggests that the adoption of a broader conception of mission, which includes civic engagement, enables a more nuanced assessment of their achievements, at least as far as the British context is concerned

AbstractMany Catholic priests, nuns, and brothers in the United States take a strong interest in US policies that affect their 'brothers and sisters' abroad. In fact, when the policies of their native government pose significant dangers to their people internationally, these US citizens engage actively in a variety of political processes in order to protect and advance the interests of the transnational religious communities to which they belong. In this provocative examination of the place of religion in world politics, Timothy A. Byrnes focuses on three Catholic communities-Jesuit, Maryknoll, and Benedictine-and how they seek to shape US policy in El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Mexico. Based on years of fieldwork and on-the-ground interviews, Reverse Mission details the transnational bonds that drive the political activities of these Catholic orders. This fascinating book reveals how the men and women of these orders became politically active in complex and sometimes controversial causes and how, ultimately, they exert a unique influence on foreign policy that is derived from their communal loyalties rather than any ethnic or national origin.

AbstractNon-Western Christian missionaries from a variety of backgrounds represent Europe as being in decline in terms of its religiosity and morals. Such evaluations are set against a backdrop of Christian demographic shift from the global North to the global South and secularization theory.; The shift in demographics is, however, unfinished, as is the inversion of relations implied by the vocal, critical presence of Southern Christians in Europe. There is great religious variety within Europe, the West and the global South. Hence scholars are developing fresh theoretical lenses to take better account of contexts and connections in analyses, and further research into the relationship between rhetoric and reality is called for

Abstract"Reverse mission" denotes the phenomenon perceived since the late twentieth century of Christians from countries which traditionally received missionaries conducting mission in traditionally sending countries: former colonial powers. This thesis constitutes an exploratory investigation of this under-researched field. It addresses the reality a significance of this social and historical change drawing upon qualitative fieldwork conducted with non-Western Christians, many from former European colonies, undertaking religious work in contemporary Britain. The thesis finds that international travel and communication are part of respondents' everyday Christians, previous relations are inverted as the British are the "indigenous population" encountering missionaries. The identification of the West with Christianity is challenged, because these missionaries and ministers come from places where Christianity is growing at a far faster rate. However, much of the funding, and consequently control, remains British. The contrasting national and ethnic identities of non-Western Christians can facilitate their work, but also to discrimination. "Success" beyond diaspora communities is limited.

AbstractThis chapter draws upon the author's PhD research, completed in 2008, a sociological investigation of 'reverse mission' in Britain. It illustrates the variety of interactions with mainline churches in reverse mission. Reverse mission is generally regarded as having 'taken off' around the early 1980s and is an aspect of British church life which may be seen to be growing. Reverse mission denotes a change in the direction of mission between 'the global North' and 'the global South'. A lot of the work so far related to the phenomenon of 'reverse mission' has focused upon African Initiated and Pentecostal-Charismatic Churches in the West. The chapter presents research conducted with Christians from a range of countries which may be classified as part of the global South who are fulfilling a variety of roles across England. This research helps address this question and communicate the multifaceted nature of reverse mission within the UK

AbstractIn recent decades, Africans have come to live in Britain in significant numbers. This has led to a large number of African independent Churches and a higher percentage of Africans in the "historical" churches, like the Church of England, the Roman Catholic Church and the Methodist Church. These Africans have brought with them their own kind of Christianity, which is often nuanced by their African traditional worldview. This book is the first significant study to be published on the nature of the religion of African Christians living in Britain. It uses a wide range of material to show what this group of Christians believe about God, Jesus Christ and Salvation. It identifies what "African Christianity" is and distinguishes it from the kind of Christianity found in the West. It shows how this "African Christianity" is interacting with the social, political, economic and philosophical forces within its new context. It is a book that will be valuable to people who have interest in the variety of expressions of Christianity around the world or in how religious faith interacts with its context

AbstractThis book is about conservative Protestant Christians and their spread around the globe. It focuses on "Health and Wealth" Christians. A ministry in Scandinavia is shown to be closely linked to evangelicals in other parts of the world, particularly the United States. The book provides the first extended account by an anthropologist of a Health and Wealth ministry. It makes a major contribution to an understanding of the material lives of these Christians: their art, architecture and uses of electronic technologies such as television, videos and the Internet

AbstractTurning the Tables on Mission documents the experiences of contemporary missionaries from the global south coming to the UK. Their candid, personal accounts challenge many stereotypes and form a rich resource for collective learning as we seek to grow a shared identity as the people of God in what is an increasingly complex and diverse society.

AbstractVeteran missiologist Samuel Escobar explores the new realities of our globalized world, assesses the context of a changing mission field, sets forth a thoroughly biblical theology of missions, and considers implications for how Christians are to go about the task of global mission.--From publisher's description

AbstractThe text asks five questions regarding reverse mission. First, what is it? Secondly, is it actually being attempted? Thirdly, why “diasporic” attempts lag behind the rhetoric? Fourthly, why do “non-diasporic” attempts, on the other hand, have more chance of success? And lastly, what is the outlook for reverse mission in Europe? The concept of reverse mission is defined and it’s imprecision questioned. Attempts at diasporic reverse mission are then discussed, as well as reasons for their general failure. However, non-diasporic reverse mission, in various modalities, is also widespread. The advantages and disadvantages of this direct mission movement are analyzed, stressing the specific disadvantages that Pentecostals face in Europe. By far the most significant cross-cultural success story by global southern missionaries in Europe is in Ukraine, but there are many reasons for regarding Ukraine as exceptional rather than a foretaste of things to come. The article concludes that reverse mission via diaspora churches (to which disproportionate scholarly attention has been paid) is unlikely to work. Non-diasporic reverse mission (which deserves more research) is more promising, but even so faces huge obstacles and positive results are still few and far between (except in Ukraine). Over time, however, some success may be achieved; possible scenarios for such success in Europe are discussed

AbstractSince the Second World War more than 1.000 Black independent congregations in around 300 different organizations have sprung up all over Britain. The immigration of Afro-Caribbeans and West Africans has led to the emergence and growth of many churches which flourish in the cities and attract a growing number of members. They now play an increasingly active role in the social and ecumenical life of the nation which is reflected in co-operation with the 'New Instrument' of the British churches. They comprise a rich diversity of theological traditions and cultural inheritance, some in an interesting blend, some in a struggle with White elements. Existence and growth of these communities have often been explained by factors inherent in British society, such as social deprivation and English racism. The book attempts to prove that, as much these are a reality, they do not account for the dynamics of the movement, its proliferation and stability. Rather these are carried by strong cultural and theological forces which moulded the spiritual experience of the African diaspora. They carry a living faith, sound contextual theologies, and a form of organization which presents a model for other ethnic minorities

Abstract"In a series of wide-ranging reflections on globalization and the currents driving it, Hanciles looks at emerging demographic flows and fault lines, arguing that these currents find their confluence in the transformation of the West by Christianized immigrant groups from Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe, and Latin America. His book is a rallying call for a fresh missionary engagement with global population shifts and a welcome contribution to studies in the field." -Lamin Sanneh, Yale Divinity School Examining global megatrends, an African scholar shows how immigrant groups are decisively shaping the future of Christianity. In this landmark study, Jehu Hanciles examines how non-Western movements and initiatives, particularly global migration, have the potential to transform Western society and Christianity. With more than two-thirds of Christians residing in the global South, the massive migration movement from the southern heartlands of Christianity to the old centers where faith is experiencing dramatic erosion and marginalization has profound implications for the renewal of Christianity as a global faith.

AbstractBlack theology as a discipline emerged in 1960s America, growing out of the experiences of Black people of the African Diaspora as they sought to re-interpret the central ideas of Christianity in light of struggle and oppression. However, a form of Black theology has been present in Britain since the time of slavery. 'Black Theology in Britain' offers the first comprehensive survey of Black theology, tracing its development in Britain from the eighteenth century to today. The essays cover a wide range of topics: Black Liberation; drama as a medium for Black theology; the perspective of Black women; Black theology in the pulpit and pastoral care; and the work of Robert Beckford and Anthony Reddie. 'Black Theology in Britain' is a key resource for students of British history, cultural studies, Black theology, and religious studies.

AbstractNowadays, the largest Christian communities are found in Africa, Latin America and Asia. This shift in the centre of Christianity affects the nature of its messengers. According to some missiologists (eg Keyes 1983), we have entered a phase of mission history that has the non-Western world at its centre. Non-Western missionaries are active in their own country and cross national borders to preach the gospel. In this study, I have specifically looked at non-Western missions in the West. This type of mission is also referred to as ‘reversed mission’ (a not undisputed term), to indicate that historically there is a reversal of the conceptualisation of who is sender and and who is receiver. Recently, ‘reversed mission’ has increasingly been a topic of research. In the relatively scarce number of empirical studies on this topic, some shared conclusions can be discerned. First, it is found that among non-Western Christians in the West, the desire indeed exists to evangelise Westerners who have lost their faith. In addition, the overall finding is that this desire is not materialised. In other words, the attempt to again fill the churches with indigenous Europeans or Americans does not seem successful. This thesis, entitled “Importing God: The Mission of the Ghanaian Adventist Church and Other Immigrant Churches in the Netherlands” has taken shape against the backdrop of these conclusions and the underlying studies. In general, these studies can be characterised by three points. First, they primarily examine (African) Pentecostal churches. In addition, they pay more attention to ‘reversed mission’ than to mission among immigrants. Finally, little systematic attention is paid to explaining the lack of ‘success’ in reaching Westerners, other than that it is often associated with the marginal socio-economic status of non-Western immigrant missionaries. To enhance our understanding of the mission of non-Western missionaries in the West, in this study I have primarily looked at non-Pentecostal churches, examined ‘reversed mission’ as well as mission among immigrants, and sought to find explanations. In this study, I take immigrant churches in the Netherlands as a case to understand non-Western missions in the West. It is estimated that there are more than half a million non-Western Christians in the Netherlands (Stoffels, 2008: 15), about 900 immigrant churches, and 200 churches offering services in languages other than Dutch (Van den Broek 2004). These churches are very diverse in ethnic and theological backgrounds - a diversity that I have sought to express in the selection of specific communities for this study. My primary case study is the church of the Ghanaian Seventh-day Adventists in Amsterdam Southeast. I also studied 14 other immigrant churches. In my research, I assumed that mission can be understood as a dynamic of inclusion and exclusion. I have therefore used the concept of ‘boundaries’ to understand the ways in which mission takes shape in different contexts. Boundaries play a role when talking about who is and who is not supposed to be converted, but also in the localisation of missionary activities and in the processes and forms of conversion or lack thereof in response to mission. Both sender and receiver think and act in evolving definitions of boundaries, making mission a field of intersections of inclusion and exclusion. The empirical part of this thesis consists of four segments: an introduction to the studied immigrant churches (chapter 2), and studies of mission discourse (chapters 3 and 4), mission practice (chapters 5 and 6) and conversion (chapters 7 and 8). In the chapters on mission discourse, it was found that most immigrant churches do not primarily focus their mission agenda on native Dutch, but defined it within the ethnic and/or linguistic boundaries of the groups they represented. In many cases, this had to do with power relations within their ethnic and/or linguistic groups. For the Ghanaian Adventists in Amsterdam Southeast, Ghanaians in the Netherlands were the main target. They drew clear symbolic boundaries in describing non-Adventist Ghanaian Christians in terms of spiritual, moral and dogmatic differences. This discourse emerged in the context of the fact that the Ghanaian Adventists formed a minority among a predominantly Pentecostal/charismatic Ghanaian immigrant community. There was competition. Leaders of Ghanaian Pentecostal churches were portrayed as being afraid of ‘the truth’ the Adventists had. These so-called money-hungry leaders would therefore deliberately block the evangelising activities of the Ghanaian Adventists and distract their followers from visiting the Adventist church. Besides, the Ghanaian Adventists themselves were exposed to the ubiquitous ‘Pentecostal danger’ and had to be taught not to pray in tongues nor visit Pentecostal ministers for prayer. In short, the religious minority of Ghanaian Adventists in the local Ghanaian community produced an emphasis on reaching precisely that community - outreach was a form of defence and conquest. This dynamic did not appear to be unique. The importance of the relations between religious minorities and majorities within the ethnic group and the ethnicising effects on the mission agenda was a recurring pattern. Thus, the Ethiopian evangelical church focused on the mostly Coptic Orthodox Ethiopians, the Turkish ministry on the predominantly Muslim Turkish community, and the Japanese Protestant church on the predominantly Buddhist/secular fellow Japanese in the Netherlands. The religious composition of the ethnic group and the associated power relations were an important factor in the development of the mission goals of immigrant churches. A related factor that undergirded the mission focus on fellow ethnics was the fact that Christian immigrants often changed churches or no longer went to church at all. Sometimes this was due to economic reasons. In the case of the Ghanaian Adventists, the central religious practice of keeping the Sabbath was often difficult to sustain, especially for undocumented workers who had little power to determine their working hours. Leaders of other churches also mentioned the busy working lives of immigrants to explain their absence from church. Another frequently mentioned issue was that immigrants sought out churches where they could worship God in their own language and culture. In some cases, this involved a change of church. Before there was a Ghanaian Adventist church, many Ghanaian Adventists ended up in Ghanaian Pentecostal churches. Church leaders also stressed the impact of the secular way of life in the Netherlands, as well as various logistical problems, as the causes of the high level of drop-outs. Out of a strong sense of connection with former fellow church members, several church leaders focused mainly on fellow ethnic drop-outs. Another factor that was important in the development of an ethnically oriented mission discourse was participation in global, established denominations. Several immigrant churches were part of such a structure, and it appeared that these churches were often created at the initiative of or in conjunction with the higher tiers of their denomination. This was the case for the Persian-speaking Jehovah’s Witnesses, the Cape Verdean community within the Church of the Nazarene, and the Chaldean and Spanishspeaking Catholics. National and international leadership of the respective denominations let these churches emerge to serve specific ethnic communities. Immigrant churches received this specific role within the wider, global church community they were part of. This dynamic also explains why the Ghanaian Adventists had an ethnic and local mission agenda (i.e. Ghanaians in the Netherlands), in contrast to the often strongly internationally oriented Ghanaian Pentecostal churches. Participation in a worldwide denomination ensured that the Ghanaian Adventists maintained many transnational relations despite their local, ethnic focus. In addition, they acquired a significant role because of this very focus. By being ‘ethnic’, they became ‘global’. In many churches, there was an additional mission discourse about reaching native Dutch people. Churches that were part of denominations which were established in the Netherlands differed in several respects from their often more liberal Dutch brothers and sisters in faith. The differences were frequently attributed to the negative influence of Dutch ‘culture’. There was also an interest in reaching out to the wider Dutch society, the secular condition of which was mainly explained by the high level of socio-economic welfare in the country. Simultaneously, in most cases there was ambivalence in this ideal of mission: evangelists to the Dutch were clearly needed, but the immigrant church leaders doubted whether they were the ones who were called. They referred to social boundaries marked by colour, language, class, and various group-specific biases. Some projected their mission ideals on their children, who, as second-generation immigrants with a higher socio-economic status, would be more likely to succeed in winning the native Dutch. The chapters on mission practices concluded that these too took shape within the confines of immigrant groups. On the one hand, this was the result of the intentions that were discussed above, which were expressed creatively in seeking to appeal to specific ethnic groups in the multi-ethnic public domain and in the churches themselves. On the other hand, it was not only a direct result of intentions. There was a strong relationship between evangelism on the one hand and the shaping of everyday (church) life on the other. One aspect of this was the dynamic that I call ‘using the church work twice’. Church activities were often not clearly marked as either intended for outsiders (mission), or intended for members. These two objectives were mixed, as churches sought to use their scarce resources efficiently. Because of the ethnic character of most immigrant churches, the dual function of church activities gave mission practices an ethnic touch, for example with regard to language, cultural items, and themes. Another aspect of the strong relationship between evangelism and the production of everyday life were social networks. Church members formed and maintained social contacts particularly within their own ethnic group, both on local and transnational levels, to (re)produce cultural identities and socio-economic security. At the same time, evangelism was often channeled through networks and in that way became ‘ethnicised’. This also took place at the level of churches, who were invited by other parties within the ethnic community to participate in certain activities. For example, the Ghanaian Adventist choir was invited by other Ghanaian churches to participate in local concerts, and Serbian Orthodox priests were asked by less active Orthodox Serbs to give a blessing at specific events. In contrast, evangelising the native Dutch was not an extension of the existing practices of churches and church members. Some immigrant churches invested in building bridges to reach natives, for example by teaching about Dutch culture or working together with Dutch Christians. In addition, they used spiritual techniques such as prayer and fasting, as well as spontaneous meetings in public life. However, social boundaries marked by language and skin colour restrained the evangelising of the Dutch without a doubt. In addition, some church leaders were caught between the desire to serve a specific immigrant community on the one hand and wanting to reach the native Dutch on the other: between choosing a black or a white guest speaker, for example, or between establishing a church in Amsterdam Southeast or a ‘whiter’ part of Amsterdam. The efficient dynamic of ‘using the church work twice’ did not apply to the evangelisation of the Dutch. In the chapters on conversion, it was again apparent that it was mostly fellow ethnic immigrants that turned to certain types or aspects of Christianity in response to the existence and activities of immigrant churches. In many cases, this had to do with wanting to (re)produce ethnic identity (exemplified by non-Christian Koreans who initially joined the Korean Reformed church for ‘cultural’ reasons) and socio-economic security (exemplified by new Ghanaian immigrants who joined the Ghanaian Adventist church because they knew more established immigrants there). The considerations were however also directly religious: in their ethnic or linguistic group, immigrants generally sought for a church that was aligned with their theological convictions as much as possible. In some cases, the choice of a church even went against socio-economic security, such as in the case of the Ghanaian Adventists, who often gave up work and social status to be part of the church that had ‘true knowledge’. On the one hand, the migration context complicated evangelism and conversion due to many factors (visa problems, time and space limitations, the Dutch weather, the mobility and diffusion of immigrants, the problem of drop-outs, etc.). On the other hand, this context promoted the conversion of immigrants. This was already illustrated by the above-mentioned cultural and socio-economic reasons. Another aspect was that immigrants from countries where Christianity is a (suppressed) minority experienced the Netherlands as ‘Christian’ and as a place where it is easier to become Christian. While it is known that especially African Christian immigrants are surprised and feel hindered by the lack of Christianity in Europe, it seems that immigrants from less Christian countries are more likely to convert in a historically Christian country like the Netherlands. As could be expected on the basis of existing studies, conversion of native Dutch people was generally uncommon. However, there were few churches where no Dutch person could be found. Often the Dutch attendees were converts who had become Christians or had adopted another form of Christianity (e.g. Protestants that had become Roman Catholic, or Roman Catholics who had become Orthodox). There were two major dynamics that undergirded the conversion of the Dutch. The first consisted of various forms of ‘love and care’: marriage relationships with immigrant Christians, the experience of immigrant churches as warm communities, and socio-economic support (especially relevant for Dutch people from lower social classes). The second dynamic was that immigrant churches proved particularly attractive to Dutch people when they offered something ‘new’ on the religious market. For example, the specific bodily practices of Ghanaian Adventists, such as their music, dance, faith healing, and exorcism, were valued by Dutch people and Dutch Adventists in particular. A special case was the Russian Orthodox parish, where one third of the attendees were native Dutch, even though the church hardly focused on evangelism. Here too it appeared that Dutch people were attracted to an immigrant church because it brought something new in terms of spiritual experience (emphasis on the senses, ‘authenticity’, ‘depth’, ‘emotion’, etc.). Furthermore, this case illustrated that an immigrant church that seeks a lasting influence on natives should not just offer something that is unknown, but combine this with the familiar, such as the Dutch language or the presence of other native Dutch people. Based on the empirical chapters, I conclude the following in the final chapter of this thesis. First, this study confirms existing works dealing with ‘reversed mission’; evangelism was focused on fellow immigrants, not on native Dutch. As others have suggested, this was partly due to the marginal position of immigrants, who were hampered by social and symbolic forms of exclusion and their limited command of the Dutch language. On the other hand, this study has shifted the understanding of the mission of immigrants by highlighting a number of other factors that paint a more balanced picture. These factors show that the emphasis on evangelising immigrants actually strengthened the position of immigrant churches. Evangelising immigrants helped the churches to establish themselves locally. In doing this, the churches capitalised on their strength to offer a cultural home to immigrants, who were looking for precisely that. Moreover, by evangelising immigrants, immigrant churches positioned themselves in the best way in the inter-church and inter-religious forms of competition that prevailed in the ethnic groups they represented. Further, the ‘ethnic’ nature of the mission of immigrant churches in some ways attracted native Dutch. This was evident from native Dutch people’s appreciation of the innovative social and religious practices of immigrant churches. Finally, immigrant churches acquired a significant place within global denominations by focusing on the evangelism of groups that their brothers and sisters in faith found difficult to reach. Considering this complex picture, I conclude that the emphasis on evangelising immigrants was not just the result of the marginal status of immigrant missionaries, but a way to strengthen their position in various social domains.

AbstractThis book is about the faith of the second-generation Africans growing up in the diaspora. It makes a compelling argument for a missional praxis that gives the younger generation both the roots of their rich multi-faceted African heritage and the wings of freedom with which they can soar into the fullness of God’s plans for them. The author believes that these young diaspora Africans will play a critical role in God’s mission in Europe in the next few decades and must, therefore, be properly equipped and empowered. The book is a much-needed and ever-so-timely contribution to the ongoing conversation about African Christianity in the diaspora context. It articulates the situation of the second generation with clarity and will help readers understand aspects of what is needed to disciple them and release them for the mission of God in the world. The simplicity of its language and depth of research that has gone into it make it a highly recommendable resource for pastors, parents, youth workers, and everyone who cares about the discipleship of this important generation.

AbstractIn the world today, migration makes up the greatest movement of people surpassing any other previous period in human history. In the last few decades, it has turned into a structural reality of contemporary society which according to some records now involves around 200,000,000 individuals. Moreover, the direction and composition of migrant movements have radically changed during the past fifty years. While until the late 1950s, international migration chiefly involved movement from the highly developed and economically and politically powerful nations to areas in the non-Western world, migrant movement since the 1960s has been predominantly from areas with weak economic and political systems to the centres of global dominance and advanced industrial growth. The new migration flows are characterised by dynamic back-and-forth movements. Bridges are maintained between the old country and the new. African immigrants constitute a vibrant sector in this movement. Indeed, the significance of African immigrants in the US has been highlighted by the election of President Barack Obama who is half Kenyan and half US-American by descent. However, with over 1,000,000 migrants a year and 299,000 asylum applications in 2006 alone, Europe is the primary destination for migrants worldwide. Since immigrants frequently react to the alienation and confusion that result from their uprootedness in religious terms, studies on migration experiences and of the processes of adaptation of religious communities to new environments are important issues. This volume is the first of its kind which represents research results both from North America and Europe. One contribution compares the experiences of Muslim and Christian immigrant groups, but in general the book is confined to the study of transnational dynamics in African Christianity. It includes a broad denominational spectrum from (Oriental) Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Protestant, to Pentecostal and Charismatic churches. While the contributors from Africa, North America and Europe represent a wide range of disciplines and methodological approaches, together they engage in an interdisciplinary exchange on the significant role of African Christians in the West in one volume; therefore the editors hope is that the book will stimulate comparative analyses and the creation of research networks

AbstractThe twenty-first century demographic reality of a growing migrant population represents the most important new wave of future missionaries to the Global North as Christians from the majority world cross cultural and religious boundaries with the gospel. The new transnational and diaspora faith communities have generated a heightened interest in the emerging field of diasporic missiology from both anthropologists and missiologists. The purpose of this book is to critically evaluate the theological rationale for diaspora mission strategies of African reverse missionaries and their impact in Britain in the light of anthropological realities and develop a biblical model for planting multiethnic churches in the diaspora. The Acts 11 narrative of the Antioch church carries significant implications for church planters of all generations. A biblical missional model of articulating Christian faith in a pluralistic and multiethnic context is a necessity for modern missions. The multiethnic church is not only biblical but is also critical to the advancement of the gospel in Europe in the twenty-first century through African reverse missionaries.

AbstractThe influx of migrants into Europe presents a crisis of religion on several fronts. Muslims fleeing from conflict and Christians from Africa in search of opportunity present challenges to post Christendom Europe today. European governments have recently responded to the challenges in a variety of ways that touch on political and economic issues. The church in Europe is caught in this crisis at a time when its political and moral power is weaker than it has been in recent history. What then is the supportive role of the church in the world, and especially in Africa? This paper offers some reflections on this pertinent theological question and the emerging opportunities that lie therein. The reflections are inspired in part by the relationship between Mavuno church in Nairobi and the EFG church in Lichtefelde, Berlin. This relationship will be used as a case study to draw out the inherent social, historical, economic and legal challenges of engaging with each other at this time of crisis. The discussion explores the opportunities for the church in Africa to engage and the role of their leadership in this engagement. Biblical imperatives and practical realities will form reference points which guide the discourse. The paper concludes with recommendations on what the commitment of the wider church body should be towards each other’s wellbeing and the challenges African church leadership will face in keeping this commitment.

AbstractSince the 1990s, we have witnessed an increasing frequency of scholarly comments on the rising cross-cultural mission praxis of Christians from the global south in the global north. In Britain, some of the key players are African missionaries, and their presence has led to an increase in the numbers of African Pioneered Churches (APCs) across the country. However, their corporate failure in engaging white British community is highly evident. Hence, this qualitative research which was aimed at recognising the factors that limit the cross-cultural effectiveness of these African pioneers and their churches in Liverpool. I interviewed five African pastors in Liverpool, they were chosen by homogenous sampling. The research also sought to identify creative possibilities that can help them overcome the limitations and rethink their mission praxis so as to enable them to engage other ethnicities in evangelism. The study revealed significant shortcomings in their mission strategies (including an outright refusal to contextualise their ministries and the prevalent racial prejudice they encounter when they try to engage others in mission). On the other hand, it proposed that an intentional synergy with British Christianity that embraces the uniqueness of both expressions of Christianity is needed in the current context of Britain's increasing multiculturality

AbstractIntroducing an emerging academic field known as African British Theologies, this publication explores the significant presence of African Christianity in Britain. Featuring contributions from twelve scholarly African pastors engaged in ministry and theology in Britain, this book is a unique expression of theology from African Christians, contextualizing the gospel for a multicultural British society.  Under three key areas of missiology, contextual constructive theology and transformative practical theology the contributors interact with topics such as reverse missiology, African pneumatology, prosperity gospel, and urban mission. This book rigorously examines new contexts of Christianity and articulates new theological perspectives that are required to understand twenty-first-century ministry, not only in urban Britain, but also across the world.

Abstract"Christianity is a world religion with about 2.3 billion Christians. While World Christianity with its attention on the explosive growth of Christianity in Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Pacific and Oceania is definitely significant, it is also important to consider World Christianity as it is developing in Europe. This book investigates this phenomenon in Western Europe through the prisms of Diasporic Identity, migrant narratives and their mission theology. It considers the complex Christian identity of people migrating to Europe, their stories and mission praxis. Here is a book including contributors who are scholars and practitioners. These scholars and practitioners are Europeans as well as migrants from the Majority World (Africans, Caribbean, South Asia and Latin Americans) employing interdisciplinary approach, their work encompasses the fields of Diaspora Missiology, Practical Theology, World Christianity, Contextual Theology and Pentecostal Studies." - from the back cover

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AbstractThis research paper explores the missiological implications of the migration of African Christians to Britain. It particularly focuses on the mission of African Christians within the historic church context in the UK by considering the history and presence of African Christians within Baptists Together as a case study. Why do we have many African Christians within historic churches, what are their struggles, and most importantly, what are their mission contributions? In this article I review key literature in the study of reverse mission, situating it within the discourse of African theology. I then narrow my investigation by looking at various examples of mission carried out by African migrants within Baptists Together. I am writing as an African missionary and a Baptist minister in Britain, employing an insider's perspective using an historical-theological approach.

AbstractThis article explores reverse mission as practised by African Christians in Britain. The main research question is what crucial role does African identity play in African mission in Britain and how does that lead towards developing African British theology? It is argued that such a theology will help African Christians in Britain be affirmed in their cultural identity whilst at the same time reach beyond African communities in their mission engagement. African British theology is related to Black British theology in that they both take the black experience seriously for theological reflection. However, African British theology is also distinct in that it seeks to understand African identity and mission in a postmodern multicultural British society. My research methods have been as an African Practical Theologian involving active participation as well participant observation. My approach has been interdisciplinary engaging the fields of practical theology, diaspora missiology, African theology and Black theology.

Abstract"This book explores the subject of discipleship, suffering and racial justice and what the UK church can learn about these themes from the experiences and theologies of Majority World contexts. It argues powerfully that suffering is relative (relativity of suffering) and develops this as a discipleship theory needed during the pandemic and post-pandemic context. The book therefore examines post-colonial contextual theologies rooted in pain and how they can serve the Church during and post pandemic."--Publisher

AbstractThis chapter overviews the growth of Black Majority Churches in Britain since 1980. Two further insights about the pre-1980s Black Majority Churches come from Mark Sturge. He sub-divides Edwards' categories and sees Black Majority Churches as having passed from an initial 'scattered' phase into 'community' and 'denominational' phases before reaching Edwards' 'consolidating' phase. Although it is difficult to ascribe an exact date to the start of a second wave of Black Majority Church growth in Britain in which African-led church-planting came to the fore, 1980 serves well. There was evidence of this new phase emerging in the mid-1970s and there were much stronger indications of it developing by 1985. Although the considerable contribution to this second wave made by those who were trained to plant and 'called' to plant has yet to be highlighted, sufficient commentary has been made in assessing the effect of this second wave of Black Majority Church growth on internal Black Majority Church relations

AbstractWorld Christianity entails a multi-centric Christianity, and mission from anywhere to anywhere. Today, any place can be a mission base and a mission field at the same time. According to Andrew Walls this may lead to a new “Ephesian moment” in Christianity. To what extent this is happening can only be found out, however, by doing actual research into local encounters of different Christianities. In this article three post-War missionary movements to Europe are subjected to scrutiny: American evangelicals, who came to Europe after the Second World War; African immigrants, who started to plant churches in the 1980s; and Australian neo-Pentecostals, who have recently extended their missionary efforts to European cities. Especially, attention is paid to their views of Europe and European churches, their methods of mission, and how they are received by Europeans. This analysis forms the basis of several missiological reflections regarding mission in secularized (Western) Europe, with a view to the realization of “Ephesian moments”. It is demonstrated that the late modern missionary movement to Europe is determined to a large extent by globalizing tendencies, which threaten local expressions of Christianity. Also, some stereotypical pictures of Europe, as they are held by missionaries, are challenged. Different approaches are suggested in order to have a genuine encounter between different kinds of Christianity on the European mission field.

AbstractThe last century has seen the revolutionary remaking of Christianity into a truly world religion. How did it happen? What triggered the emergence of this new global faith no longer dominated by the West, full of new and vital forms of devotion? Mark Shaw's provocative thesis is that far-flung revivals are at the heart of the global resurgence of Christianity. These were not the quirky folk rituals associated with rural America and nineteenth-century camp meetings that belong more to an age of plows and prairies than of postmodernity and globalization. Rather they were like forces of nature, protean, constantly adjusting their features and ferocity to new times and to new places, speaking Spanish, Portuguese, Yoruba, Korean, Mandarin and Gujarati. They crossed the equator. As they traveled abroad they grabbed hold of missionaries, Bible translations, national evangelists, globalization and glossolalia and turned them into a religious revolution. In this engaging book we read the stories of Joseph Babalola and the Aladura Revival in Africa, of Kil Sun-Ju and the great Korean revival of 1907, of Paulo Borges Jr. and explosion of neo-Pentecostalism in Brazil, and of V. S. Azariah and the mass conversions of the Dalit people in India. As Shaw paints portraits of these and many more, his gallery fills, and we begin to see beyond isolated pictures to the sweeping landscape that we didn't realize was before our eyes all the time.

AbstractWritten out of personal experience from a perspective rooted in the indigenous British church, this paper suggests that intentional working towards a truly multicultural church most closely represents God’s intention for His people. In our thinking, experience, and manner of gospel working, we are presented with challenges that need to be addressed and overcome to make this happen. But then, no-one said it would be easy to strive for God’s best.

AbstractAn introduction to Black Majority Churches in the UK, this work clarifies what the term means, and examines the history, beliefs, practices, stuggles and vision of these churches, looking at their distinctiveness, internal politics, and contribution to society

AbstractThe current study focuses on care for West African Victims of human trafficking (VHTs) in The Netherlands and addresses the question of how (1) social and legal professionals and (2) religious leaders of African-led migrant (Pentecostal) churches perceive their relationship with these VHTs. Thematic analyses of qualitative interviews (N = 21) revealed that both groups share the perception that VHTs are vulnerable, especially in view of so-called voodoo spells. Social and legal professionals noticed that West African VHTs prototypically appear as ‘demanding’ in a rather pro-active manner. Religious leaders on the other hand indicated that the VHTs feel at ease in the church in a more adaptive sense and may find ways of changing their lives after experiencing the Pentecostal “deliverance” ritual.

AbstractBuilding on long-time research and extensive interviews, this ground-breaking study offers a portrait of pentecostal / charismatic immigrants from the global South who do not define themselves as victims but as expatriate agents with a calling to change Europe

AbstractAn introduction is presented in which the editor discusses various reports within the issue on topics including African Pentecostalism, reverse mission diasporic Christians and reformation of the African Christianity.